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While the numerous famous
religious figures that dot the history of Buddhism
in Bhutan cannot all be described within the scope
of this book, Bhutanese Buddhism derives much from
the genius of the following persons, all of whom are
unanimously acclaimed as the spiritual ancestors of
the Nyingmapa and Drukpa Kargyu schools: Guru
Padmasambhava, Longchen Rabjampa, Phajo Drukgom
Zhigpo, Dorji Lingpa, Choeji Kunga Paljor, Padma
Lingpa, Drukpa Kunlay, Yongzin Ngagi Wangchuk,
Mipham Tenpi Nyima, Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal and
Gyalse Tenzin Rabgye.
Though foreigners often refer to Bhutanese Buddhism
as Lamaism or Tibetan Buddhism, this is no more than
a misconception fostered by the superficial
similarities between the two. Though both belong to
the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions of Buddhism,
they differ widely with respect to rituals and
liturgy, and in such other particulars as monastic
organization and the system of education.
The Kagyupas, whose Drukpa branch eventually gained
pre-eminence in Bhutan, came closest of all the
Buddhist schools to what is known in the
philosophical jargon as subjective idealism. They
gave particular emphasis to Tantric exercises and
the practice of Ammuttara Yoga. This school is
connected with the Indian teacher Naropa, who was a
superintendent of the famous Nalanda University in
India, through his student Marpa Choeki Lodroe of
Tibet, better known as Marpa.
Although it was Marpa who founded the Kagyupa sect
in the latter half of the eleventh century, the
establishment of the sect owes more to his
illustrious student Milarepa, whose name literally
means, “the cotton –clad”. A thinly clad ascetic who
endured great extremes of climate while wandering in
the mountains, Milarepa possessed many occult powers
and the composer of 100,000 popular songs.
The form of Buddhism introduced into Bhutan Tantric,
adaptable, highly flexible and metaphysical. It
admits of numerous gods, demons and female energies
or consorts of gods, who are invoked purely for the
sake of worldly concerns. On the other hand, the
veneration accorded to the Bodhisattvas, among whom
the omniscient Chenrezi, or avalokiteshvara of
Infinite Mercy, occupies a position of special
importance, stems from a totally different motive:
to seek spiritual guidance in the path of salvation.
Guru Padmasambhava in his eightfold manifestation is
the object of special veneration as the second
historical Buddha.
Bhutanese Buddhism recognizes six realms of
existence:
- The Deva Loka, or Realm of the Gods,
characterized by the ceaseless gratification of its
inhabitants and, usually, their eventual rebirth
into a lower state;
- The Asura Loka, or Realm of the Demigods,
characterized by discontent, misery, envy of the
splendor of the gods, and constant battling with
them;
- The Manushya Loka, or Realm of Human Beings,
characterized by birth, old age, disease, and death,
from whose cycle human beings can attain liberation
only through the attainment of Nirvana;
- The Pashu loka, or Realm of animals,
characterized by stupidity, powerlessness, fear and
suffering, with the animals not only preying on one
another but being used by man as food and beast of
burden;
- The Preta Loka, or Realm of Hungry Ghosts, the
abode of those who, in their previous life, had been
avaricious or had remained preoccupied with material
possessions. It is characterized by the perpetual
hunger and thirst of its inhabitants, whose previous
Karma prevents them from seeking food or water even
when these are placed before them;
- The Naraka Loka, or Cold and Hot Hells, the realm
of infernal pain, where those who have sinned
through anger are accordingly doomed.
Connected with these six states is the popular and
ancient religious formula Om mani Padme Hum
(literally, “Om, the Jewel on the Lotus”), which is
commonly displayed on prayer flags and carved on
slate, rocks, and prayer wheels throughout Bhutan.
It is also constantly recited by lamas and laity
alike; the exercise is specific state of existence;
Om among the gods, Ma among the demons, Ni among
mankind, Pad among Beasts, Me among hungry ghosts,
and Hum among Hell-beings.
There are three chief spiritual paths in Mahayana
Buddhist teachings: renunciation bodhicitta, or the
altruistic mind; and the correct view of emptiness.
Human existence in Buddhism, as we have seen, is
conceived of as a wheel or cycle of birth, death and
rebirth in which suffering is inherent. Renunciation
connotes the desire to free oneself from cyclic
existence and enter the higher state of full
enlightenment known as Buddha hood.
By bodhicitta is understood the sincere wish to
attain enlightenment, not merely for one’s own sake
but for the sake of all sentient beings. One who
possesses bodhicitta is referred to by the term
Bodhisattva. The motivating factor in the
development of bodhicitta is compassion, and various
steps and methods are prescribed for its unfolding.
The correct view of emptiness recognizes that all
that we feel and experience in our ordinary daily
life can be shown to be without substance at the
level of absolute truth. An analogy is the dream,
which appears real to the dreamer but, upon his
waking up, is seen as a short-lived product of the
mind, with no independent existence. In Buddhism,
emptiness is called “Drama itself” or “Truth itself”
Wisdom, which acts in the universe through
compassion, is achieved when one understands
emptiness as the reality of our individual and
collective existence. The experience of wisdom is,
of course, enlightenment, and the fundamental change
that takes place during its attainment is from a
self-or ego-centered perspective to one of
selflessness.
Another important idea in the understanding of
Buddhism is Karma, literally “deed” or “act” which
implies that as you sow, so shall you reap: good
actions lead to good results and bad actions to bad
results. The former are known as positive Karma and
the latter as negative Karma. We are the product of
our Karma, not only of this life, but of numerous
previous lives, and all of us have an accumulation
of both positive and negative Karma, which bear
fruit when the moments is ripe and make us either
happy or miserable.
Buddhism holds that there is no permanent happiness
in material existence, which what goes by the name
of happiness in this state, is like the reverse side
of a coin whose obverse side is misery and pain. It
is only when, by following the Dharma, we destroy
Karma and transcend relative truth that we reach an
eternally blissful state beyond sorrow known as
Nirvana.
Bhutanese Buddhism recognizes three main types of
Nirvana: Natural Nirvana, Peaceful Nirvana and
Ultimate Nirvana.
Briefly, Natural Nirvana may be said to be the sum
of one’s total human attributes and social status.
The Peaceful Nirvana of Arhatship is achieved purely
for personal ends, and the Ultimate Nirvana of
Buddha hood is achieved for altruistic purposes. |
